ISSN print edition: 0366-6352 ISSN electronic edition: 1336-9075 Registr. No.: MK SR 9/7 Published monthly

Fabrication of Cissus quadrangularis (CQ)/nHAp-loaded PLA/TPU scaffold with TPMS structure: mechanical and biological characterization

Rinusuba Veluswamy, Rajam Ramasamy, Gayathri B, S Derosy James Allwin, M. K. Suriya Prakesh, K Shankar, M Vishwa, and Bijudas K

Department of Chemistry, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India

E-mail: gayuchem20@gmail.com

Received: 9 July 2025  Accepted: 10 November 2025

Abstract:

Sustainable and biofunctionalized bone substitutes with significant mechanical integrity, favoured to enhance osteoconductive and osteoinductive potential in bone tissue engineering, are investigated. This study deals with the mechanical and biological characterization of polylactic acid/thermoplastic polyurethane/Cissus Quadrangularis/nano-hydroxyapatite (PLA/TPU/ CQ-nHAp) scaffold with triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) porous structure. The PLA/TPU/CQ-nHAp scaffold with TPMS is prepared using fused deposition modelling (FDM). The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis showed that successful incorporation of CQ-nHAp onto to PLA/TPU scaffold. The microscopic morphology exhibited that CQ-nHAp was dispersed over and interfacing with the PLA/TPU matrix as characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The PLA/TPU/CQ-nHAp scaffold exhibited a good compressive strength (28 N), flexural strength (5.5 N/mm²), and tensile strength (3.7 MPa), Shore D Hardness (36.6 hD). In addition, in vitro biological experiments revealed that the scaffold had good biocompatibility. Characterization analysis confirmed that the scaffold structure, similar to cancellous bone, by the TPMS, may be suitable for bond defect filling. Sustainable, raw materials, and easy fabrication, as well as promoting good mechanical and biocompatibility, the CQ-nHAp-loaded PLA/TPU scaffold may be a promising option for promoting bone regeneration and tissue engineering applications.

Graphical abstract

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Keywords: Triply periodic minimal surface; Bone regeneration; Cissus quadrangularis; Poly lactic acid; Mechanical studies

Full paper is available at www.springerlink.com.

DOI: 10.1007/s11696-025-04629-w

Chemical Papers 80 (4) 3501–3516 (2026)